John Tyler

John Tyler (1790-1862) became our tenth President upon the death of William Henry Harrison, the first Vice President to do so. Tyler was a Southern Democrat who left his party to run with Harrison on the Whig Party ticket. Harrison died thirty days after taking office, and Tyler became President. Tyler was born on March 29, 1790, at the Greenway estate in Charles City County, Virginia, the second son of John and Mary Armistead Tyler. His father served at various times as governor, speaker of the Virginia House of Delegates, and a judge. Tyler went to William and Mary College in 1802 where he studied hard and became interested in politics. He enjoyed writing, poetry, and playing the violin. He graduated at age 17, studied law under his father's instructions and was admitted to the Virginia bar in 1809. Tyler was only 21 when he was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates. During the War of 1812 he was captain of some volunteers for a month in the summer of 1813. His company saw no action so he returned to the legislature. Tyler married Letitia Christian, the daughter of a Virginia planter, on March 29, 1813 - his birthday. They had five daughters and three sons. Mrs. Tyler was suffering from a paralytic stroke when her husband became President and died on September 10, 1842. Twenty-two months after her death, Tyler married Julia Gardiner in New York City in 1844, making Tyler the first President to marry while in office. Tyler and Julia had seven children. Tyler served in the Virginia House of Delegates. He also served in United States House of Representatives. He fought for strict interpretation of the United States Constitution and opposed any measures that extended the powers of the federal government. He opposed the American System, an economic plan that called for increased federal spending on roads, etc. and high tariffs to aid American manufacturers. He also was opposed to the Bank of the United States. He resigned his seat in the House because of ill health in 1821. Tyler was elected as governor of Virginia in 1825. In 1827 he was elected to the United States Senate. In 1840 he was elected Vice President of the United States. On April 6, 1841, he was sworn in as President of the United States upon the death of William Henry Harrison. When Tyler left the White House he retired to Sherwood Forest, his estate near Charles City, Virginia. He lived quietly until the Civil War. He went to Washington seeking a compromise on the issues facing the nation in February 1861. At the Virginia secession convention in April, he voted in favor of Virginia leaving the Union. He was elected to the Confederate House of Representatives but died on January 18, 1862, before being seated there. He is buried beside his second wife in Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond, Virginia. Facts and information for this blog post came from an article by John T. Hubbell, World Book Encyclopedia, Vol. 19, pp 532-535.

War of 1812

Some people consider the War of 1812 as the strangest war in the history of the United States. The chief reason for the war was that Britain was stopping American ships at sea, removing British-born sailors, and forcing them back into British naval service. The United States was very much against this practice. Britain was trying to regain the hundreds of British sailors who deserted the British navy and found work on American ships. They went too far and "impressed" many native-born Americans into the British navy.

Another reason for the war was that Britain was fighting France. Before 1806, American ships took goods to both Great Britain and France, and Americans were getting rich on the European war. Napoleon tried to destroy British trade by stopping all British trade with Europe. Great Britain issued orders to blockade all French ports and ports in Europe under French control. To keep from being seized by Britain, American ships bound for French ports had to first go to a British port for inspection and payment of fees. Napoleon issued orders telling all neutral ships to not stop at British ports for inspection or the French navy would seize their ships. America was caught in the crossfire between Great Britain and France.

The United States made several attempts to convince England to change their policy towards neutral shipping and impressments, and Great Britain finally decided to repeal their laws. Speedy methods of communication might have prevented the War of 1812 because Congress declared war on England two days after Great Britain repealed their laws - long before news of the repealed laws reached America.

The war was fought for freedom of the seas, but it started with an invasion of Canada on a three-prong attack. American forces started from Detroit, from the Niagara River, and from the foot of Lake Champlain. The first attempt to invade Canada failed because American forces were either captured or turned back. In the campaigns of 1813, an American army moving towards Detroit was defeated and captured.

Several months later, United States troops captured York (now Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada, burned some of the buildings and held the city for a short time. The British fleet on Lake Erie was destroyed, forcing the British to leave Detroit and much of the Michigan territory. General William Henry Harrison took his army across the lake and defeated the retreating British at the Battle of the Thames. Later in the year Britain captured Fort Niagara and burned Buffalo, New York, and neighboring villages.

By 1814 Napoleon had been defeated in Europe, and Britain was concentrating on the war with America. By this time America had a well-trained and disciplined army that crossed into Canada and held Fort Erie for several months before crossing back into America. This was the last attempt to invade Canada.

Meanwhile, another British army, escorted by a fleet to Chesapeake Bay, occupied Washington, D.C. and set fire to the Capitol, the White House, and other public buildings. The British army and the British fleet were repelled at Baltimore. Bombs bursting in the air over Fort McHenry during the attack on Baltimore inspired Francis Scott Key to write "The Star-Spangled Banner."

The final battle of the war was the Battle of New Orleans. This battle started on January 8, 1815 - a full 15 days AFTER a treaty of peace had been signed at Ghent, Belgium, on December 24, 1814. General Andrew Jackson was the hero of this battle, a battle that might have been prevented with better communication.

The peace treaty was ratified by Congress on February 17, 1815, a month after this battle was fought. According to the peace treaty, all land captured by either side was to be returned. Nothing was said in the treaty about impressments or blockades, although they were supposedly the reason for the war.

The War of 1812 was called "Mr. Madison's War" because he requested Congress to declare war on England. William Henry Harrison and Andrew Jackson won military fame during the war, which helped them in their respective presidential campaigns. Information and facts for this blog post came from an article by Reginald Horsman, World Book Encyclopedia, Vol. 21, pp. 28-33.

James Madison

James Madison (1751-1836), the fourth President of the United States, is better known as the Father of the Constitution. As a leading player at the Constitutional Convention of 1787, he helped design the system of checks and balances that operate among Congress, the President, and the Supreme Court. He also was instrumental in creating the United States federal system, which divides the power between the central government and the various states.

Madison was born on March 16, 1751, in the home of his maternal grandparents located about 12 miles from Fredericksburg, Virginia. He was the eldest of twelve children. His ancestors on both sides of his family settled in Virginia during the 1600s. The Madison plantation, Montpelier, was located near present-day Orange, Virginia, and was worked by many slaves.

Madison was sickly and frail as a child. He studied with private tutors as well as attended school. He entered the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) at age 18 and had an active interest in politics. He completed his college work in two years and graduated in 1771. He spent the next six months studying Hebrew, philosophy and other subjects searching for answers to his religious questions. He had a weak speaking voice, which kept him from becoming a preacher. He entered politics in 1774 as a member of the Committee of Safety in Orange, Virginia. In 1776 he helped to draft a new constitution for Virginia and the Virginia Declaration of Rights. These documents were used as patterns by other colonies.

Madison met Thomas Jefferson in 1776 while serving in Virginia's revolutionary assembly, and they became friends for life. In 1779 Madison was elected to the Continental Congress. Madison represented Virginia at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 at age 36. He fought for a stronger central government and drafted the Virginia Plan, which is also called the Randolph Plan. This plan foreshadowed the Constitution that was adopted.

Madison was knowledgeable about political history and knew of the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, the basic law replaced by the Constitution. Of all the people at the convention, Madison kept the most complete record of the debates there. Madison next served as a member of Virginia convention called to consider ratifying the new Constitution. He also joined Alexander Hamilton and John Jay in writing the Federalist, a series of letters to newspapers encouraging ratification. These letters are still considered the best explanation of the constitutional system in America.

Madison lost an election for a seat in the first United States Senate in 1788. The next year he defeated James Monroe in an election for the United States House of Representative. There he proposed ideas for organizing the Departments of State, Treasury and War, drafted most of the first tariff act, and helped draft the first ten amendments to the Constitution, which became the Bill of Rights.

Madison met and married a young widow named Dolley Payne Todd in Philadelphia in 1794. The couple had no children but raised Dolley's son from her first marriage. [Mrs. Madison gave lavish parties in the White House and is said to have saved national treasures from burning when the British burned the White House during the War of 1812.]

Thomas Jefferson appointed his friend James Madison as secretary of state. Together they achieved the most important success in foreign relations in Jefferson's presidency - the Louisiana Purchase. They failed to force England and France to respect the rights of American ships at sea. Jefferson favored Madison to succeed him as President.

The War of 1812 was known as "Mr. Madison's War." Madison knew that America was not prepared for war, but he also knew that the United States could not tolerate further insults from Great Britain. He recommended war with England, and Congress approved it on June 18, 1812. The war ended with the Treaty of Ghent, which went into effect in February 1815. The war preserved American territorial integrity, but it didn't settle any of the causes for the war. The war ended without a victory for either side.

Other historical events of President Madison's time were: 1) In 1811 the National Road, which went from Maryland to Illinois, was started and became a major route to the West. 2) Also in 1811, the steam-powered printing press, invented by a German printer, made newspapers cheaper to print in large numbers. 3) During the War of 1812, British troops captured Washington, D.C. and burned the Capitol, the White House, and other public buildings. 4) Jane Austen's novels established her as a great writer of English literature. Her novels included Pride and Prejudice (1813), Mansfield Park (1814), and Emma (1816). 5) "The Star-Spangled Banner," which became our national anthem, was written by Francis Scott Key after watching the British attack Baltimore during the War of 1812. 6) Napoleon was defeated in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo, ending his plans to rule Europe. 7) The stethoscope, used to listen to the heart, etc, was invented by a French doctor in 1816. Facts and information in this blog post are from an article by Robert J. Brugger, World Book Encyclopedia, Vol. 13, pp. 32-36.

Andrew Jackson

Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) was the first President to be born in a log cabin. Previous presidents were from wealthier families. Jackson was the son of poor Scotch-Irish immigrants but became an orphan at age 14. He grew up in the Carolinas but later moved to Tennessee. He became famous as an Indian fighter and as a War of 1812 general. He was known for being tough and was given the nickname of "Old Hickory." Jackson was born on March 15, 1767, in either North Carolina or South Carolina - no one knows which one. Jackson's parents were poor farmers from Northern Ireland, who sailed to America in 1765 with their two older sons, Hugh and Robert. His father built a cabin and started a farm. He died in 1767 just days before Andrew was born. Jackson had a quick temper and got in many fights. He was also a good reader. At age 9, he read the newly adopted Declaration of Independence to his neighbors. At age 11 he went to a nearby boarding school. At age 13 he and his brother Robert joined the South Carolina mounted militia. His brother Hugh died in an earlier battle. Andrew and Robert were captured by the British in April 1781. Andrew was severely cut with a sword when he refused to clean the British commander's boots. The officer forced the two Jackson boys to march 40 miles to a military prison where they caught small pox. Their mother was able to obtain their freedom during an exchange of prisoners. Robert died from the small pox, and Mrs. Jackson died soon after him. Andrew became an orphan at age 14 and was the only one of his family left living. Jackson studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1787. He served as solicitor or attorney general. He gained a large private law practice because of his success as a public defender. Jackson roomed at a boardinghouse in Nashville. There he met Mrs. Rachel Donelson Robards who was separated from her army officer husband. Believing that her husband had divorced her, she married Jackson in August 1791. They learned in December 1793 that the divorce was granted the previous September. Jackson and Rachel were remarried on January 18, 1794, in Nashville. The confusion surrounding their marriages made them targets of gossip for decades. The Jacksons had no children of their own. They adopted a four-day-old nephew of Mrs. Jackson in 1809 and named him Andrew Jackson, Jr. They also reared three other nephews of Mrs. Jackson. Jackson was a good businessman in addition to being a lawyer. He bought land at low prices and sold it for as much as thirty times the purchase price. He bought two plantations, Hunter's Hill and Hermitage. Hunter's Hill was later sold to pay debts, but the Hermitage remained his home. Jackson was a delegate at the state constitutional convention, which prepared for Tennessee's entrance into the Union. He may have be the one who suggested the name "Tennessee" for his state. Jackson was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1796 and the United States Senate in 1797 but resigned in April 1798. As a major general in the Tennessee militia, Jackson led 2500 Tennessee militiamen and offered their services to President James Madison when the War of 1812 started. While waiting for federal orders, the Tennessee governor directed him to reinforce troops in New Orleans. Jackson was in Natchez, Mississippi, when he received federal orders to demobilize his troops on the spot. Jackson was furious, refused to demobilize them and led them home through 500 miles of wilderness. Because his men considered him to be tough as hickory, he returned home to Tennessee with his famous nickname, Old Hickory. Jackson led 2000 men in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in a fight with Creek Indians. He dictated peace terms with the Creek, who gave up 23 million acres of land in present day Georgia and Alabama. The federal government commissioned Jackson a major general in the regular army and assigned him to command troops on the southern coast. On the way to New Orleans, Jackson seized Pensacola in Spanish Florida, which the British were using as a military base. When he arrived in New Orleans on December 1, 1814, he recognized that the city was defenseless. He set a furious pace putting up defenses. The British attacked at dawn on January 8, 1815, but were terribly defeated with losses of 300 men killed, 1250 wounded and 500 captured. American losses were 14 men killed, 39 wounded, and 18 captured. The victory made Jackson a hero but didn't affect the outcome of the war. A peace treaty had been signed two weeks earlier, but word didn't reach Jackson until after the battle. After the United States acquired Florida from Spain, Jackson served as the provisional governor in 1821 for a few months. Jackson was elected President of the United States in 1828 in spite of his marriage to Rachel becoming a campaign issue by John Quincy Adams. Mrs. Jackson died on December 22, 1828, from a heart attack and was buried at Hermitage. Before her death she expressed her desire that her niece should manage the White House for Jackson. Jackson was swept into office with the idea of reform. He wanted to destroy what he considered to be a monopoly of federal offices by wealthy individuals. He believed that no federal employee should have a right to a lifetime job. Jackson also took on the Bank of the United States. The bank had authority over the United States currency system. Jackson disliked the bank for both economic and political reasons and considered the law establishing the bank as unconstitutional. When the bank's charter came up for renewal, Jackson vetoed the bill (1832). In 1833 he removed the government funds from the Bank of the United States. The fight over the bank occurred at the same time as the opening of the West, heavy speculation in land, and increased foreign trade. The United States government was making more money than it was spending. [Wouldn't that be a wonderful situation?] Jackson used the surplus on January 8, 1835, to pay the final installment of the national debt. He was the only President to pay off the national debt. There were lots of problems for his administration involving Indians. In 1832, settlers drove the Black Hawk Indians from Illinois. In 1835, United States troops forced the Seminole Indians to retreat to the Florida Everglades. Texas declared its independence from Mexico in 1836. The Battle of the Alamo, the most famous battle in the war for Texan independence, took place in 1836. Mexican General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna defeated the Texans who were defending the Alamo. Famous Americans in the Alamo were Davy Crockett and Jim Bowie. Jackson thought Texas should be part of the United States but feared to recognize Texan independence. He thought it might damage Martin Van Buren's chances to become President. After Van Buren was elected, Jackson used his last day as President to establish diplomatic relations with the Republic of Texas. Jackson retired to Hermitage, white-haired and ill with tuberculosis and dropsy but still standing very much erect. He supported Van Buren's unsuccessful bid for re-election in 1840. In 1844 he supported James K. Polk in his successful bid for the presidency. Jackson died on June 8, 1845, and is buried in the garden at Hermitage beside his wife. Facts and information for this blog post are from an article written by James C. Curtis, World Book Encyclopedia, Vol. 11, pp 6-14.