Fog of War

            I recently watched a video entitled “The Fog of War” for my humanities class. It was narrated by Robert McNamara, U.S. Secretary of Defense for seven years during the John F. Kennedy-Lyndon B. Johnson administrations. It was an interesting video because he discussed world events that took place in my later teens. I knew about the events and had some feelings about them, but I was far from understanding what happened and why.

            McNamara was somehow involved in the decision to drop bombs on two Japanese cities in an effort to end World War II. I got the impression from other studies that he was quite brilliant and was involved with the numbers or statistics involved in that operation. From “The Fog of War” I also got the impression that he was still wondering if the decision to drop the bombs was a good one.

            This video began with McNamara making a statement that any honest military leader would admit that he made mistakes in the application of military power, mistakes that had gotten somebody killed. Conventional wisdom, he said, would be to not make the same mistake again, and most military leaders would learn the lesson quickly. However, there is no learning period with nuclear weapons. When dealing with nuclear weapons, a first mistake could wipe out an entire nation.

            McNamara made it his rule to try to learn and understand what happened and then to develop lessons in order to pass them on to other people. He shared one of the lessons that he learned during the Cuban Missile Crisis that took place 16-28 October 1962. That lesson was: Empathize with our enemy.

            The crisis started when the USSR introduced missiles into Cuba and targeted 90 million Americans. The warheads were not delivered before the missiles were discovered, so the United States blockaded Cuba with 40 warships and mobilized 180,000 troops. President John F. Kennedy, McNamara, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff debated what to do about the problem. The Joint Chiefs wanted to bomb Cuba and destroy it, but JFK and McNamara were trying to avoid war if possible. They received two messages on the same day. The first one said that if the US would not invade Cuba, the missiles would be taken out. This was considered to be a “soft message.” The second one arrived before the US could respond to the first message. It said that the Russians would respond with massive military power if the US attacked Cuba. It was considered to be a “hard message.”

            Then Tommy Thompson, a United States diplomat, entered the picture. He served in Sri Lanka, Austria, and for a long period of time in the Soviet Union. There he saw some of the most significant events of the Cold War and got to know Khrushchev personally. He suggested to JFK that they respond to the soft message. JFK thought that it was the wrong message to answer. Thompson said to the President of the United States, “Mr. President, that is where you are wrong.” That took guts!

            After a little more discussion, Thompson convinced JFK to take a chance. He said that the important thing for Khrushchev was to be able to tell his people, “I saved Cuba; I stopped an invasion. Kennedy was going to destroy Cuba, but I stopped him.” Thompson thought that Khrushchev realized that he had gotten himself into a terrible problem and would appreciate a way of escape. The US gave Khrushchev the opportunity to back out and still brag about how tough he was. Thompson thought that Khrushchev would accept the deal, and he did. The crisis was over without anyone dying, and the USSR moved the missiles out of Cuba. Tommy Thompson is best known for this advice that he gave to JFK.

            McNamara suggested that we try to put ourselves inside the skin of the other person and look at the situation through their eyes. We should try to understand the thoughts that lie behind their decisions and actions.

            After sharing many thoughts about the Vietnam War and the difficult decisions that were made, McNamara shared an experience that he had in 1995, twenty years after the US pulled out of Vietnam. He said, “There aren’t many examples in which you bring two former enemies together at the highest levels and discuss what might have been.” He formed the hypothesis that each nation could have achieved their objectives without the terrible loss of life, and he wanted to test it by going to Vietnam.

            A former leader in Vietnam said during the discussion, “You are totally wrong. We were fighting for our independence. You were fighting to enslave us.” Americans were devastated with the deaths of 58,000 military members and thousands injured, but Vietnam thought the 3,400,000 dead Vietnamese were worth the price of independence. Maybe that war would have turned out differently if the Vietnamese understood that we were not trying to enslave them.

            We should remember this rule of McNamara. Most of us will never be in a position to make a decision about whether or not to drop a bomb on some nation, but all of us have some kind of relationship with the people around us. We do not have to jump to quick solutions and start lobbing “bombs” at them. We can take the time to look at the situation from the other person’s point of view and see us through their eyes. We would most likely be greatly surprised at what we would see. Who knows? Maybe friendships, family relationships, and even marriages can be saved by practicing this rule.

Before You Go

For this Freedom Friday, I want to tell you a story about Dr. Sam Bierstock who is a professional musician and entertainer as well as a physician. Dr. Sam formed a musical group in 1996 called "Dr. Sam and The Managed Care Blues Band." This band uses satire, great music and humor to entertain and has performed in more than forty states and sold many thousands of CDs.

Dr. Sam returned from a cross-country trip and arrived at an airport in Florida at 1:00 A.M. in the summer of 2002. He found his car and arrived at the collection booth. There he wished the attendant a good evening. The elderly attendant gave an angry and resentful reply, "I took two bullets for this country and look what I am doing now!" Dr. Sam drove a few feet while digesting what had just happened. He backed up and said to the attendant, "Sir, I have had a wonderful life in this country, and I want to thank you sincerely for what you did to preserve our way of life in this country." The attendant said nothing in response but began to cry.

Dr. Sam was haunted by his experience and started to think of the members of his family who had served in World War II. "He realized that not only would our entire way of life and system of freedom been destroyed, his parents and grandparents would have been killed, he would never have been born and his children would not exist. The same fate would have been met by virtually all other members of minorities, many religious groups, and the disabled. The personal freedoms that we take so much for granted would have disappeared. `How", he thought, `do you thank someone enough for the existence of your children, and for all of the freedoms and opportunities that we all take so much for granted?' "

Dr. Sam wrote the lyrics to a song called "Before You Go" the very next morning. The words came easily to him because they came from his heart, but he had a difficult time finding the right music. It was not until the summer of 2005 that he was able to find someone to write the music - and that person happened to be a new keyboard player in his band. "Before You Go" was finally recorded.

Dr. Sam was aware that the veterans of World War II were dying at a rate of 1,000 to 2,000 per day, and he wanted this song to reach as many of them as possible before they died. He made the decision to put his recording for free listening on the Internet.

My father-in-law was a veteran of World War II and died before I could send this song to him. Please make sure that every World War II, Korean War, or Vietnam War veteran that you know hears "Before You Go" before their time on this earth is gone.

Vietnam War

The Vietnam War (1957-1975) was the war of my generation and was the longest war ever for the United States, starting in 1957 and ending in 1975. Vietnam is a small country in Southeast Asia, and at the time of fighting, Vietnam was divided into Communist-controlled North Vietnam and non-Communist South Vietnam. The reason for the war was because North Vietnam and South Vietnamese rebels trained by Communists wanted to take over South Vietnam. South Vietnam with the assistance of the United States tried to stop the takeover but failed. Even though the war is called the Vietnam War, fighting also took place in Laos and Cambodia, and United States pilots flew missions from bases in Thailand Fighting in Vietnam actually began in 1946 when the Vietnamese fought independence from France. Vietnam at that time was part of a colony called French Indochina. Even though the United States helped France with over $2 billion in military equipment, France lost to the Vietnamese in 1954. At that time Vietnam was divided into North Vietnam and South Vietnam. The United States sent aid to France and then later to non-Communist South Vietnam because President Harry S. Truman "declared that the United States must help any nation threatened by Communists." Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, and Lyndon B. Johnson adopted the same policy because they feared a domino-effect would take place if any Southeast Asian country fell to the Communists. For the Communists, the Vietnam War was a war of national liberation because they saw the Vietnam War as just a continuation of the war with France and said that it was just another attempt for a foreign nation to control Vietnam. North Vietnam's goal - supported by China and the Soviet Union - was to make one nation out of the northern and southern parts of Vietnam. From 1957 until 1965, the Vietnam War was basically a battle between the South Vietnamese army and South Vietnamese rebels known as the Viet Cong who were trained by Communists. In the period 1965 until 1969, most of the fighting was done by the United States and North Vietnam. Other nations also helped South Vietnam, including Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, South Korea, and Thailand. The United States had approximately 540,000 troops in South Vietnam by 1969 but began to withdraw its troops in 1969 because Americans had grown weary of the long war. About 58,000 Americans died in the Vietnam War. There were more than a million South Vietnamese deaths and between 500,000 and a million deaths among North Vietnamese troops. The fighting destroyed much of Vietnam. A cease-fire was arrangement in January 1973, and United States troops were out of Vietnam two months later. Even though fighting continued between South Vietnam and the Communists, American troops did not return. South Vietnam surrendered two years later on April 30, 1975, and ended the war. In my opinion, the war in Vietnam could have and should have been won by American and South Vietnam forces. I believe that politicians tried to run the war instead of letting the military do what they are trained and paid to do. The talk during the Vietnam War was very much like what has been happening for the past nearly ten years as our military has battled in Iraq and Afghanistan. I still believe that if our nation is going to send our military to war, they better do everything possible to win the war. Facts for this blog post came from an article by George C. Herring in World Book Encyclopedia, Vol. 20, pp 397-402

Lyndon B. Johnson

Lyndon Baines Johnson (1908-1973) was among four Vice Presidents in United States history who assumed the office of chief executive upon the assassination of the President. Johnson became President on November 22, 1963, after John F. Kennedy was murdered in Dallas, Texas. He was elected to a full term as President in 1964, receiving more than 61 percent of the votes. He chose not to run for reelection in 1968. Johnson was born on August 27, 1908, in a farmhouse near the town of Stonewall in central Texas. He shared the same birthday as my mother. He was the eldest of five children, two boys and three girls. His father was a farmer and school teacher who served five terms in the Texas House of Representatives, and his mother was a former teacher. His paternal grandfather made the statement on Johnson's day of birth, "He'll be a United States Senator some day." Johnson was a healthy active child who liked to hear stories from the Bible, history, and mythology. He learned the alphabet by age 2 and to read by age 4. At age 5, his family moved to Johnson City, Texas, a city founded by his grandfather. There he attended public school. He didn't like to study but made good grades because of his mother's insistence. He attended the Johnson City high school where he and a friend won a county-wide debating contest. He was popular to become president of his class of seven students and graduated from high school at age 15 in 1924. His parents encouraged him to attend college, but he was through with studying. After working in California for seven months waiting on tables, washing dishes and doing farm labor, he hitchhiked back to Johnson City and found work on a gang building roads. His parents continued to encourage him to go to college and were told one especially hard day, "I'm sick of working just with my hands. I don't know if I can work with my brain, but I'm ready to try." Johnson entered Southwest Texas State Teachers College (now Southwest Texas State University) in San Marcos in February 1927. He borrowed $75 from the bank in Johnson City to start college and worked as a janitor to pay his expenses. He also became a star debater and practiced giving speeches while sweeping the halls. He had a second job as secretary to the president of the college. He became interested in college politics and had his first political success in college when he organized the White Stars, a campus political group who took control of campus politics from a group dominated by athletes called the Black Stars. He became the editor of the school newspaper and a leader in other school activities. He received excellent grades and made many friends. He left college and taught school for a year to earn enough money to continue his education. He graduated from college in 1930 and then taught public speaking and debate at Sam Houston High School in Houston. His debating teams won honors in state contests. Johnson entered politics when he campaigned, gave speeches and talked with voters for Richard M. Kleberg, a Democrat running for the U.S. House of Representatives. When Kleberg won the special election in November 1931, he took 23-year-old Johnson to Washington as his secretary. Apparently he made a good impression on the other congressional secretaries because one of them recalled: "Within a few months, he knew how to operate in Washington better than some who had been here for 20 years before him." Johnson met his future wife, Claudia Alta Taylor (known as Lady Bird since age 2) on September 12, 1934, at a hearing of the Texas Railroad Commission in Austin. She was the daughter of a wealthy family in Karnack, Texas. He asked her for a date immediately after meeting her but was rejected. He made many long distance telephone calls to her from Washington as well as sending many letters and telegrams; he proposed two months later and she accepted. The were married on November 17, 1934, and went to Mexico for their honeymoon. They had two daughters, Lynda Bird and Luci Baines. Johnson, at age 26, was appointed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to be the Texas state administrator of the National Youth Administration (NYA). Although he was the youngest NYA state administrator, he directed 12,000 youths in work projects such as playgrounds, roadside parks, and soil conservation. About 18,000 young people went through high school or college with the assistance of his organization. In 1937 he quit his job as a youth administrator in order to run for Congress in a special election against nine opponents. Even though some of his opponents were better known than he, they gave him valuable publicity when they accused him of favoring the plans of FDR. Johnson was in the hospital recuperating from an emergency appendectomy on April 10, 1937, when he learned that he had won the election with nearly twice as many votes as his nearest competitor. After leaving the hospital, Johnson was invited to join FDR aboard the presidential yacht in Galveston for a fishing cruise in the Gulf of Mexico. He then rode the President's special train through Texas. Roosevelt and Johnson developed a warm and lasting friendship. In 1938 and 1940, he was re-elected to the U.S. House of Representatives with no opposition but lost a bid to the U.S. Senate in a special election. About an hour after the United States declared war on Japan (for bombing Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941), Johnson requested to be moved from the Naval Reserve to active duty. He was sworn in three days later as a lieutenant commander, the first congressman to go into uniform. Johnson was a special representative of President Roosevelt and traveled to New Zealand and throughout the Pacific area of operations, spending several months with General Douglas MacArthur in Australia. MacArthur personally awarded the Silver Star to Johnson for gallantry after a mission aboard a bomber that was attacked by Japanese fighter planes. While Johnson was overseas, his supporters entered him as a candidate for reelection to the House in the spring of 1942. In July of the same year, President Roosevelt ordered all members of Congress serving in the armed forces to return to Washington. In May 1948 Johnson announced his candidacy for the U.S. Senate and ran against ten opponents in the primary election. None of them received a majority of the total votes; this forced a runoff election, which Johnson won by 87 votes. He became a U.S. Senator in January 1949 and was appointed to the Senate Armed Services Committee. In 1951, the Democratic senators elected Johnson to be the whip (or assistant leader). In January 1953 he was unanimously elected as minority leader at age 44, the youngest ever chosen to be Senate leader. He was reelected in 1954 by a margin of three to one votes over his closest competitor. The Democrats controlled both house of Congress, and Johnson became the Senate majority leader. Johnson had a heart attack in July 1955, spent five weeks at the naval hospital in Bethesda, Maryland, before going to his Johnson City ranch to recuperate, give up smoking, and go on a diet. A recovered Johnson then returned to Washington to resume his post as Senate majority leader. Johnson was a strong support of the exploration of outer space, helped establish the Senate Aeronautical and Space Committee, and made himself its first chairman. He also sponsored the law to establish the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Johnson pushed through the Senate in 1957 the first civil rights bill in more than 80 years, and three years later he beat down a Southern filibuster to pass another civil rights measure through the Senate. I remember reading or hearing a news article quoting Johnson as saying that these civil rights measures would insure that blacks were supporters of the Democratic program forever. When Democrats nominated Senator John F. Kennedy, a liberal Catholic from Boston, Massachusetts, for President, he invited Johnson, a more conservative Southerner and member of the Disciples of Christ, to be his running mate. The Kennedy/Johnson team narrowly defeated the Nixon/Lodge team. Johnson was also reelected to a third term in the Senate in the same election but resigned from the Senate and was sworn in as Vice President in January 1961. He was sworn in as President of the United States on November 22, 1963, aboard Air Force One, after Kennedy was assassinated. Johnson won reelection by a landslide in the election of 1964. During Johnson's full term, the economy boomed. In May 1964, he said, "… We have the opportunity to move not only toward the rich society and the powerful society, but upward to the Great Society." The term Great Society describes many of Johnson's domestic programs. In 1965 and 1966 there were large Democratic majorities in both the Senate and the House, and President Johnson was very successful in getting his proposals passed. Johnson's programs included: 1) The War on Poverty was fought with the Appalachia bill - a law that was passed by Congress to improve living standards in the Appalachian Mountain region containing 11 states. Congress passed a housing law in 1968 to provide $5 million in tax payer money to help needy people buy houses and rent apartments. 2) Additional civil rights legislation was passed in 1965 to ensure voting rights for blacks by outlawing literacy tests as a voting requirement, etc. The Civil Rights Act of 1968 was passed in an effort to end racial discrimination in the sale or rental of houses and apartments. 3) Congress passed laws increasing federal funds for education, a cut in excise taxes, stronger safety measures for automobiles. 4) Two new executive departments - the Department of Housing and Urban Development and the insurance for the elderly. In addition to domestic issues, Johnson also had to deal with the Vietnam War. There were about 16,300 military advisers in Vietnam when Johnson became President. In an effort to protect U.S. bases in Vietnam and to keep the Communists out of the country, Johnson ordered the first U.S. combat troops into South Vietnam in the spring and summer of 1965. There were more than 500,000 U.S. troops in South Vietnam by 1968. The Vietnam War greatly divided our nation between Americans who wanted to use stronger military action and end the war (hawks) and Americans who wanted to cut back on the fighting to eventually bring all U.S. troops home (doves). The critics of the war included Democratic Senators Eugene McCarthy (Minnesota) and Robert F. Kennedy (New York). Johnson also had to deal with problems in the Dominican Republic in mid-1965 when rebels tried to take over the government. Johnson sent U.S. troops to end the rebellion because he feared Communists gaining control of the rebels. By mid-1966, order was restored, elections were held, and all U.S. troops came home. In 1966 Robert C. Weaver was named secretary of housing and urban development and became the first black to hold a Cabinet position. In 1967 Thurgood Marshall became the first black to be appointed to be a Supreme Court justice. Opposition to Johnson's Great Society programs grew in 1967 when more Republicans were elected to Congress and slashed appropriations for many of the programs. People were divided about whether to spend money for the war or for domestic programs. In 1968 additional taxes in the form of a surtax was instituted to help pay for the Vietnam War and to check inflation. Racial tension increased along with opposition to the Vietnam War, and demonstrations were common throughout the nation. Riots broke out in the ghetto slums of Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, New York City, Los Angeles and Newark with federal troops being sent to Detroit. A special commission warned about the nation dividing into two societies, "one black, one white - separate but unequal. Many Americans began to question federal policies in both foreign and domestic areas, and many grew doubtful about whether the Administration was being honest about the Vietnam War. Johnson's popularity dropped as the credibility gap grew. When Senators Eugene McCarthy and Robert F. Kennedy both announced that they would challenge Johnson for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1968, Johnson made the shocking announcement "… I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your President" (March 31, 1968). He did not want to cause a "division in the American house" and so withdrew in the name of national unity. Johnson's announcement also included a reduction of bombing missions in North Vietnam and led to talks between U.S. and North Vietnamese representatives, beginning on May 13, 1968. All bombing and other attacks on North Vietnamese territory was stopped on November 1, 1968, leading to peace talks. When Johnson left the White House on January 20, 1969, he retired to his Texas ranch. Later that same year Johnson's birthplace and boyhood home became part of the Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Site (now Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Part). Johnson avoided active participation in the political process and published his memoirs, The Vantage Point: Perspectives of the Presidency, 1963-1969 in 1971. The Lyndon B. Johnson Library opened at the University of Texas in Austin that same year to hold many of Johnson's papers and souvenirs. In April 1972 Johnson suffered a heart attack and rarely left his ranch after he recovered. He had another heart attack on January 22, 1973, and died. He is buried on his ranch in the family cemetery, which is now part of the national historic park. The Manned Spacecraft Center at Houston was renamed the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center after President Johnson died. August 27, Johnson's birthday, was made a Texas legal holiday by the state legislature. Other events in the world of President Johnson include: 1) The Beatles, a rock music group from Great Britain, toured the United States in 1964 and created a sensation wherever they went. 2) The Women's Liberation Movement gained strength. Groups such as the National Organization for Women (NOW) (founded in 1966) fought to end discrimination against women.. 3) The Six-Day War between Israel and three Arab nations (Egypt, Jordan and Syria) was fought June 5-10, 1967, and Israel gained control of Jerusalem and the surrounding area, the Gaza Strip, the Golan Heights, and the Sinai Peninsula. 4) Civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. and Senator Robert F. Kennedy (New York) were assassinated in 1968. Facts for this post came from an article by Philip Reed Rulon in World Book Encyclopedia, Vol. 11, pp 144-152.

Dwight David Eisenhower

Dwight David Eisenhower (1890-1969) was the leader of the victorious Allied military forces in Europe in World War II. His military career covered more than 30 years before he was elected Commander-in-Chief in 1952. The tall, bald-headed man known as Ike was loved throughout the world. He had a broad grin and a friendly personality that could make almost everyone feel comfortable around him. Ike was organized, thoughtful, and patient, and he thought that good leaders led best by inspiring others to cooperate and to rise to their full potential.

Ike faced many difficult decisions as President. There were widespread investigations because of fear of Communist influence in government. There were bitter disputes caused by new civil rights issues. There were crises in foreign affairs caused by Communist threats in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The war-time hero who became Commander-in-Chief helped keep peace in the world.

Eisenhower was born October 14, 1890, in Denison, Texas. He was the third of seven sons born to his deeply religious parents. He was named David Dwight Eisenhower but was always called Dwight David Eisenhower. His parents were descendants of German and Swiss immigrants who settled in Pennsylvania in the 1700's. I wonder if his ancestors came to America because of the kindness shown by General George Washington to the captured German Hessian soldiers.

Ike was popular in high school but didn't know what to do after graduation. A friend suggested that he apply to the national military academies where the tuition was free. He received an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. He was respectful of his parent's opposition to war even though he chose a military career.. He played football at West Point but quit the team after injuring his knee In 1915 he graduated 61st in a class of 164 and was commissioned a second lieutenant. He was assigned to Fort Sam Houston near San Antonio, Texas.

While there he met Mamie Geneva Doud (1896-1979) who was visiting from Denver. They started dating and were married on July 1, 1916 - the same day Ike was promoted to first lieutenant. Ike and Mamie had two sons. The oldest, Doud Dwight Eisenhower, died at age 3 of scarlet fever. John Sheldon Doud Eisenhower became an Army officer and diplomat. John's son, David, married Julie Nixon, the youngest daughter of Richard M. Nixon.

During World War I (1914-1918) Ike directed tank training programs at Camp Colt in Gettysburg. Pennsylvania. After the war he served in the Panama Canal Zone on the staff of Brigadier General Fox Conner. With Conner's support, he was selected to attend the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. In 1926 he graduated first in his class of 275 top Army officers to survive the demanding training. He held various positions before becoming an aide in 1933 to General Douglas MacArthur, the Army Chief of Staff, in Washington, D.C.  When MacArthur was stationed in the Philipines in 1935, he took Ike with him. While in the Philipines, Ike took flying lessons and made his first solo flight in 1937 at age 47.

World War II began in 1939, and in 1940 the United States began building up its military in case it was drawn into the war. In 1941 Ike was appointed by the Army to plan the strategy for the Third Army in war games in Louisiana. The "enemy" force included a tank division commanded by Ike's friend George S. Patton, Jr., who also became a World War II hero.

Ike's performance in the brilliant win earned him a promotion to Brigadier General in September 1941. He also caught the attention of the new Army Chief of Staff, General George C. Marshall. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor forced the United States to enter World War II, Marshall assigned Ike to Washington, D.C. to serve in the Army's war plans division.

Ike was promoted to Major General in March 1942. In June 1942 he was named commanding general of United States forces in the European Theater of Operations, advancing over numerous senior officers. He became a Lieutenant General in July 1942 and named commander of Allied forces organized to invade North Africa. The invasion began in November 1942 and ended with the retaking of the region from German and Italian forces.

In February 1943 Ike was promoted to the rank of four-star general, then the highest rank in the Army. He organized the Allied invasions of Sicily in July 1943 and of Italy in September 1943. In December 1943 Ike was named supreme commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Europe.

The Allies planned to invade Normandy in northern France in early June 1944 by crossing the English Channel. This plan was history's largest seaborne invasion ever. "The success of Operation Overlord depended on low tides and calm seas for the landing boats, and clear skies fore the bombers protecting them. But on June 3, the weather turned bad, with rough seas and heavy clouds. Weather experts told Eisenhower there was a slim chance that the weather would clear up on June 6. If the invasion did not begin that day, it would have to wait two weeks until the next low tide. 
"Eisenhower faced the anguish of decision. He could risk millions of lives on the small chance of good weather, or he could delay the landing and probably lose the vital military element of surprise. On June 5, Eisenhower made his final decision. `OK, let's go!' he ordered. The invasion began early in the morning of June 6, 1944, a day that became known as D.-Day. By nightfall, the Allies had a firm hold on the beaches of Normandy. After 11 more months of bloody fighting, Germany surrendered on May 7, 1945" (Elmo Richardson, World Book Encyclopedia, Vol. 6 [1994], p 150).

Eisenhower received the newly created rank of five-star general in December 1944 and returned to the United States to a hero's welcome in June 1945. He wanted to retire from the military but accepted the position as Army Chief of Staff in November 1945. Ike retired from active military service in 1948, became president of Columbia University in New York City, and wrote a best-selling book about his wartime experiences. He was called back into the military when he became the supreme commander of the newly formed North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) forces in Europe. He was eager for the opportunity to work with the unique international army.

Ike became active in politics as a result of divisions in the country over the Korean War , which started in June 1950. Many Republicans thought the United States should withdraw from the bloody conflict. Ike thought the United States needed to be involved in problems facing the rest of the world in order to live in peace and freedom.

Many Republicans urged Ike to run for President arguing that only he could unite the party's conservative and liberal wings. He was concerned that there had been no Republican presidents for twenty years but would not run against Harry S. Truman. When Truman chose not to run for re-election, Ike retired from the Army - again - without pay or military benefits and became a candidate for the Republican presidential nomination. He was not the leading candidate, but he won the nomination on the first ballot and chose Richard M. Nixon to be the vice presidential candidate. Republicans won the election with 55% of the ballots cast and gained control of both houses of Congress.

Many people admired Ike's experience and integrity and believed he would restore government to its proper role as well as protect against Communism. As President, Ike delegated wide powers to aides. He made each Cabinet officer and White House assistant responsible for an area of government affairs. He chose officials for their strong convictions and managerial abilities. Soon after he became President, the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (now the Department of Health and Human Services) was created, making ten Cabinet positions. Eisenhower and Nixon were elected for a second term in 1956 - by an even greater victory than in 1932.

Ike was the first President prohibited from running for a third term by the 22nd Amendment to the Constitution, which became law in 1951. He left office in January 1961 and retired to his farm in Gettysburg. There he raised cattle and wrote three books of memoirs. He died of heart failure on March 28, 1969, after a series of heart attacks. He was buried in Abilene, where a library with his papers opened for researchers.

Some highlights from the world of President Eisenhower are: 1) "The Korean War ended, after three years of fighting, with the signing of a truce agreement on July 27, 1953; 2) Controlled nuclear energy came into use. The U.S. Navy launched the first nuclear-powered vessel, the submarine Nautilus, in 1954. The first large-scale nuclear power plant began operations in 1956 at Calder Hill in England; 3) Segregated public schools were outlawed by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1954. In a landmark case, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, the court ruled that racially segregated schools were unconstitutional; 4) Rock 'n' roll became the leading form of popular music. A band called Bill Haley and His Comets recorded one of the first rock hits, "Rock Around the Clock," in 1955; 5) The merger of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in 1955 united the two leading U.S. labor federations; 6) The first polio vaccine, developed by the American medical researcher Jonas E. Salk, was declared safe in 1955; 7) The Vietnam War began in 1957, when Viet Cong guerrillas started to attack the South Vietnamese government; 8) The St. Lawrence Seaway, linking the Atlantic Ocean and Great Lakes, was completed by the United States and Canada in 1959; 9) Fidel Castro took over the government of Cuba in 1959 and soon turned the country into a Communist state; 10) New inventions included the laser, a device that produces a narrow beam of intense light, and xerography, an ink-less copying process perfected by the Xerox Corporation" (Elmo Richardson).

I was not aware of most of these highlights while they were happening. I knew about the labor union merger because my U.S. History teacher hammered into his students the wrongness of this merger. I remember receiving polio vaccine and the fear associated with the disease. I had a good friend who wore a full-length brace on one of his legs from elementary school through high school. I remember seeing him running across the school yard.

The Vietnam War was on the news a lot in my older teens and young married life. I knew several young men who served in Vietnam. I grew to adulthood believing that Eisenhower was a really good President. I remember when he left office and also when he died. He was well-loved and respected by American citizens. My brother-in-law served in the U.S. Navy during the Korean War. He liked Eisenhower so much that he called his beloved little dog Ike.